‘… the law of fixtures is (and will always remain) a rough and ready mechanism by which competing claims of ownership over different things are settled. Behind a veneer of principle, the law lacks coherence and certainty and it is strongly arguable that it should not continue in its present form.’ [1]This essay seeks to examine the law of fixtures and chattels in England and Wales, as well as a clear analysis of whether current legislation lacks coherence and certainty; it will ultimately conclude that though statute may be minimal, common law remediates and ‘fills the gaps’ of the uncertainty of the law.
The law in England and Wales is composed of statutes (legislation passed in parliament) and common law (law interpreted by judges). Chattels are an item of personal property, other than freehold land, including tangible goods and leasehold items. A principle of land law, expressed in Latin, “Quic quid plantatur solo, solo cedit”, states that whatever is attached to the soil becomes a part of it. Thus, any chattels that are affixed to land, becomes part of the land and are known as fixtures. Regarding ownership, fixtures would be considered as part of real property and hence would belong to the land owner; while chattels are personal property and may belong to another. The distinction between fixtures and chattels is made by the physical degree of annexation to land. S.62(2) Law of Property Act[LPA] (1925)[2], states that a conveyance of land, having houses or any other building should include, and operate to convey with the land, houses, other buildings…fixtures…or other buildings conveyed, or any of them, or any part thereof, or at the time of conveyance, demised, occupied, or enjoyed with, or reputed or known as part or parcel of or appurtenant to, the land, or other buildings conveyed, or any of them or any part thereof. Multiple tests have been used to distinguish between fixtures and chattels, but a matter of precise analysis is used as a determining factor. Elitestone Ltd v Morris and Another established that the subjective intention of the parties will not affect the question of whether a chattel can become a fixture; however, where a chattel is physically attached to the land, will prime facie indicate that it is a fixture, Blackburn J. in Holland v. Hodgson[3], sums it up as; "Thus blocks of stone placed one on the top of another without any mortar or cement for the purpose of forming a dry-stone wall would become part of the land, though the same stones, if deposited in a builder's yard and for convenience sake stacked on the top of each other in the form of a wall, would remain chattels." According to the case of Holland v Hodgson, a less reversible and more permanently object affixed to land, is more likely to be defined as a fixture and becomes a part of the land. Wiltshear v Cottrell[4] and Walmsley v Milne[5] are authorities for this principle, where an object is fixed by the owner, though only affixed by bolts and screws, it is to be considered a part of the land, in all events where the object of setting up articles is to enhance the value of the premises to which it is annexed for the purposes to which those premises are applied. An object by object basis determines the test for the degree of annexation. Any object that rests merely on land due to their own weight was the key feature of the gravity test, in Hulme v Bingham[6], heavy machinery unattached to land was considered a chattel. This test was also used in Botham v TSB Bank PLC[7], it was held that appliances remaining in position by their own weight and are affixed electrically, would likely be a chattel. In Wansborough v Maton[8] and Rex v Otley[9] a wooden barn and a wooden mill were both held to not be part or parcel of real property. English law permits chattels to rest on land and not be a part of it; this includes sheds[10], bungalows[11] and house boats[12]. However, chattels found under the surface of the land belong to the landowner[13], unless they are items of treasure trove under the Treasure Act 1966. The owner of land has a right to sever any fixture whenever they wish, such item(s) will return to status of chattel. The vendor(seller) of the land can sever fixtures up until the contract of sale becomes binding. After the ownership of the land (and fixtures) transfers to the purchaser, the vendor cannot remove any fixtures. Additionally, regarding tenantship, if a tenant attaches their own personal property to land, it becomes a fixture and the property belongs to the owner(landlord); exceptions to this include ornamental and domestic fixtures[14], trade fixtures[15], and agricultural fixtures.[16] Michael Haley’s confusion in ‘The Law of Fixtures: An Unprincipled Metamorphosis?’ arises from the doubtfulness of the relationship between the degree and purpose of annexation tests, and secondly in practice the tests fail to answer everyday questions of lawyers and clients since there is no obvious superior legal rule that can be applied. After a clear and thorough analysis of the law, it can be stated that based on statute, the law of chattels and fixtures does hide behind a cover of principle. By interpretation, S.62 LPA 1925 simply states (in ‘layman terms’), that legal transferring of land which includes fixtures etc, by the Act, operates to convey such fixtures with the land. The law of fixtures vaguely exists in one section of one act. The haphazard development of law through cases inevitably leads to inconsistencies, not merely in terminology but also in substance. Elimination of this inconsistency by the implementation of precise statute concerning all areas of fixtures and chattels will ensure that buyers and owners are protected by the highest form of law, regardless of prior judges’ interpretation. Proper codification would make the law more accessible by providing a single clear agreed text. Sources of the general principles would rather be found in an Act of Parliament instead of a subsection in a statute, and thousands of cases. However, introduction of an Act of Parliament has many disadvantages. It can lead to confusion and new appeals; relearning current law and how to interpret it can be seen as wasting time and resources. It simply isn’t feasible to create a comprehensive statute, as it is impossible to include all the aspects of the law. Judges may also be threatened that the implementation of such can reduce the role of the courts and their ability to have flexibility within common law. One of the most substantial obstacles, despite however desirable it may be, would be to implement the Act itself; it would be very difficult to secure Parliamentary time to enact or amend a Bill specifically for fixtures, considering, that if the Bill is amended for fixtures, all other factors in S62(1)(2) LPA 1925 should also be included. One of the Pillars of the UK’s constitution is their flexibility; creating or amending legislation strips the court of their role and ultimately reduces the flexibility of the law. Rules established by Common Law, in addition to current statute provisions set out for fixtures and chattels are very much sufficient, and do not need amending nor being implemented as new law. Common Law plays a major role in the UK’s constitution, Michael Haley sought to undermine the position of the court by implying that the only ‘coherent and certain’ law is that of Parliament. [1] (M Haley, ‘The Law of Fixtures: An Unprincipled Metamorphosis?’ [1998] Conv 137, 144.) [2] S.62(2) Law of Property Act 1925 [3] Holland v Hodgson (1872) LR 7 CP 328 [4] Wiltshear v Cottrell (1853) 1 E & B 674 [5] Walmsley v Milne (1859) [6] Hulme v Bingham ([1943] KB 152 [7] Botham v TSB Bank (1996) 7 P & C R D 1 [8] Wansborough v Maton (1836) 4 Ad. & El. 884 [9] Rex v. Otley (1830) 1 B. & Ad. 161 [10] Webb v Frank Bevis Ltd. [1940] 1 ALL ER 247 [11] Elitestone Ltd v Morris and Another [1997] 1 WLR 687 [12] Chelsea Yacht & Boat Club v Pope [2000] EWCA Civ 425 [13] Waverley Borough Council v Fletcher [1995] 4 All ER 756 [14] Spyer v Phillipson [1931] 2 Ch 183 [15] Smith v City Petroleum [1940] 1 All ER 260 [16] s.10 Agricultural Holdings Act 1986.
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7/31/2023 03:01:02 pm
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8/9/2023 10:51:02 am
Steroid Siparis Steroid Fiyatlari Steroidler Anabolizan Orjinal Steroid Steroid Satis Steroid Satın Al Steroid Siparis Et
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8/15/2023 10:27:23 am
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